The Dark Tetrad: analysis of profiles and relationship with the Big Five personality factors.

The Dark Tetrad (DT) is composed of the traits of Narcissism, Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, and Sadism. Most studies analyzing the DT have employed a variable-centered approach, analyzing the traits separately. In the present study, we treat DT as a whole, adopting a person-centered approach. We analyzed different homogeneous subgroups of individuals characterized by specific DT profiles, aiming to examine their relationship with Big Five personality factors. A sample of 1149 participants (50.1% women, 18-79 years) completed The Short Dark Triad and the Assessment of Sadistic Personality instrument to assess DT, while the Mini-IPIP was used to assess the Big Five personality factors. Cluster analysis yielded five groups: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, Mean DT, Low DT, and High DT group. The main results showed that the High DT group was distinguished by higher levels of extraversion and lower levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness (compared with the Low DT group). Moreover, the Narcissism group was characterized by higher scores on emotional stability, openness to experience, and extraversion. Finally, distribution according to gender varied across DT groups (more men than women in the High DT group and the opposite in the Low DT group). Limitations and future lines of research are discussed.

Differential Impact of Emotional and Contextual Factors Associated with COVID-19 on Adolescent Mental Health.

Background: During the confinement, there was an increase in the incidence of mental disorders such as depression and anxiety. In this regard, affectivity is of particular interest, as emotions play a fundamental role in overall mental health. The literature on COVID-19 in this population has often focused on the analysis of risk factors for mental health, while less attention has been paid to protective factors. In this paper, we propose an inclusive model of risk and protective factors for adolescent mental health through the indirect effect of negative and positive affect. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study with a Spanish community sample of 477 adolescents (Mage = 16.23, range:14 to 20 years old; 43.4% were boys; response rate: 100%). We measured the perceived hardness of confinement, worrying about contagion, quality of relationships at home, pleasant activities, affect (positive and negative), and mental health. Results: The results revealed a positive relationship between the perceived hardness of confinement and worrying about contagion with mental health, through the indirect effect of negative affect, and a positive relationship between home relationships and pleasant activities with mental health through an indirect effect of positive affect. Conclusion: Our results suggest that different types of emotions generated by the various contextual variables associated with COVID-19 may have a differential impact on mental health. These findings support the inclusive model of risk and protective factors for adolescent mental health. Practical implications, future studies, and limitations are discussed.

Impulsivity and sensitivity to reward as mediating factors of the negative relationship between emotional intelligence and health-related risk-taking: evidence from a sample of university students.

BACKGROUND: Better abilities in emotional intelligence (EI) have been linked to a decreased tendency to engage in health-related risk behaviour. However, the processes underlying this relationship are still unclear. The aim of this research was to examine the role of impulsivity and sensitivity to reward as mediating factors in the relationship between EI and health risk-taking. METHODS: Two hundred and fifty participants (Mage = 23.60, age range = 18-59; SD = 6.67; 71.60% women) were assessed on ability EI levels, risk-taking in health contexts, impulsivity, and sensitivity to reward. Unlike previous studies in the literature, we employed a performance-based ability measure to assess EI (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, MSCEIT). RESULTS: The results confirmed the negative relationship between EI and health risk-taking and revealed the existence of a significant negative indirect effect of EI on health-risk taking through various dimensions of impulsivity and sensitivity to reward. EI abilities -particularly the ability to manage emotions- were associated with lower levels of impulsivity under positive and negative emotional states, a better management of the tendency towards sensation seeking, and a decreased emotional reactivity to rewards. CONCLUSIONS: The present research provides a better understanding of the processes underlying the negative relationship between EI and health risk-taking. Our findings suggest that having higher levels of EI abilities would allow for a more objective evaluation of risk scenarios and a more appropriate and safer decision making through its influence on the levels of impulsivity and emotional reactivity to rewards. Practical implications, limitations, and future lines of research are discussed.

Ability Emotional Intelligence and Subjective Happiness in Adolescents: The Role of Positive and Negative Affect.

Adolescence is an increasingly vulnerable period for the onset of affective disorders and other mental health issues that can significantly impact an individual's subjective well-being. This study aims to examine the relationship between emotional intelligence (ability EI), measured with a performance-based instrument, and Subjective Happiness in adolescents. It also explores the mediating role of positive (PA) and negative affect (NA) in this association and the moderating role of gender. The sample consisted of 333 first-year secondary school students from five centers in Spain, with an average age of 12.11 years (SD = 0.64), ranging from 11-14 years. Path analysis revealed an indirect effect (through NA and PA jointly) of Total Ability EI on Subjective Happiness and a positive direct effect that was observed only in females. Furthermore, this association was explored through various branches of ability EI. The results of this study suggest that interventions aimed at improving emotional abilities in adolescents while modulating the intensity of their emotions could significantly impact their overall well-being.

Emotion regulation strategies and aggression in youngsters: The mediating role of negative affect.

Aggression in youngsters is a highly prevalent problem worldwide. Given that this problem has negative consequences for society, aggressors, and victims, the present study aims to understand the processes underlying the acts of aggression in this population. Specifically, we analyze the role of two emotional regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression) and the positive and negative affect variables in aggressive behavior. For this purpose, 654 primary and high school students aged between 9 and 18 years (47.6% boys) were assessed on emotion regulation, positive and negative affect, and aggression through the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, and the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, respectively. The results revealed that higher use of the cognitive reappraisal strategy was correlated with lower levels of aggression (for total, physical, and anger). In contrast, the opposite was observed with expressive suppression (for total aggression and hostility). More important for the purposes of this study was the finding that the negative affect variable mediated the relationship between expressive suppression and aggressive behavior. Specifically, those individuals who made greater use of the expressive suppression strategy had higher levels of negative affect, which, in turn, was associated with higher levels of aggression. Cognitive reappraisal appeared to be only directly related with a reduction in total aggression. Thus, higher levels of cognitive reappraisal were related to a reduction in aggressive behavior. However, when focusing on the four dimensions of aggression, the relationship between cognitive reappraisal and aggression appears to be mediated by negative affect and, in the case of anger, by positive affect. The limitations and implications of these findings are discussed.

The dark triad and subjective well-being: The mediating role of cognitive-emotional regulation strategies.

The dark triad (DT) is composed of psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism. These traits have usually been correlated with maladaptive strategies of emotion regulation. In turn, these types of strategies have shown a negative relationship with the components of subjective well-being (SWB): affective well-being (AWB) and cognitive well-being (CWB). The principal objective of the present study was to analyze the possible mediating role of adaptive and maladaptive cognitive-emotional regulation strategies in the relationship between the DT and SWB components. For this purpose, a community sample of 678 participants (Mage  = 35.03; 53.1% women) completed the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWB), the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), the Cognitive Emotional Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ-36), and the Short Dark Triad (SD-3). The results showed a good fit with the model in which Machiavellianism was indirectly and negatively related to CWB through the effect of maladaptive strategies and AWB, and indirectly and positively related to CWB through the effect of adaptive strategies and AWB. Narcissism was indirectly positively related to CWB through the effect of adaptive strategies and AWB. Finally, psychopathy was indirectly negatively associated with CWB through the effect of adaptive strategies and AWB. Limitations and clinical implications of this research are discussed.

Does our cognitive empathy diminish with age? The moderator role of educational level.

INTRODUCTION: The literature has demonstrated how the relationship between cognitive or emotional intelligence and age exhibits an inverted-U-shape and that this decline can be mitigated by an individual's cognitive reserve (CR). Rather less is known, however, about the pattern of changes in cognitive empathy or the ability to recognize the thoughts or feelings of others. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the present study was firstly to analyze the effect of age, gender, and CR (measured through educational level), on the capacity to show cognitive empathy. Secondly, we aimed to evaluate what type of relationship-linear or quadratic-exists between age and cognitive empathy. We finally aimed to analyze the moderator role of educational level on the relationship between age and cognitive empathy. PARTICIPANTS: Totally, 902 Spanish adults aged between 18 and 79 years (M = 43.53, SD = 11.86; 57% women). MEASUREMENTS: Participants were asked to indicate their educational level (primary, high school, or college education) and their cognitive empathy was assessed using the Eyes test. RESULTS: Women scored higher than men on cognitive empathy. Participants with a college education had higher scores on cognitive empathy than those with a lower educational level. Additionally, the relationship between age and cognitive empathy fit an inverted-U-shaped curve, consistent with the data found for cognitive and emotional intelligence. Finally, the age-related decrease in cognitive empathy appeared to be mitigated by a higher educational level, but only in those individuals aged 35 years and above. Limitations and clinical implications are discussed.

Emotional Intelligence and Risk Behaviour: A Risk Domain-Dependent Relationship.

BACKGROUND: It is widely accepted that emotions exert a strong influence on risk decision-making. Despite this, the literature studying the role of emotional intelligence (EI) on the tendency to engage in risky behaviour is scarce, and the results appear to be inconclusive. The present study delves into the relationship between EI and risk behaviour through various risk contexts (Ethical, Health, Financial, Social, and Recreational domains). We also examined whether this relationship is age and gender-dependent. METHOD: A Spanish sample of 1435 participants (Mage = 29.84, from 18 to 70; 61.9% women) was assessed for levels of EI and risk-taking by the TMMS and DOSPERT scales. RESULTS: The results revealed that EI was negatively related to risk behaviour in the Ethical and Health domains and positively related to the Social and Recreational domains. Moreover, we confirmed the influence of gender and age on both EI and risk behaviour. CONCLUSIONS: EI is differentially related to risk behaviour depending on the risk domain studied, supporting the idea that risk is a domain-specific construct. We suggest that higher levels of EI could be adaptive for risk behaviour regardless of the direction of the relationship. Practical implications and future lines of research are discussed.

Evidence on the Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Risk Behavior: A Systematic and Meta-Analytic Review.

The aim of the present study was to carry out a qualitative and quantitative synthesis of the existing literature studying the relationship between emotional intelligence and risk behavior. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of the scientific evidence available relating both constructs. Particular attention was paid to identifying possible differences in this relationship as a function of the different conceptualizations of EI and the risk domain. The study was conducted following the Cochrane and PRISMA guidelines. Our results revealed a significant negative relationship between EI and health-related risk behaviors. However, this relationship was not observed in other risk domains such as finance and gambling. The relationship between EI and risk behavior differed according to the risk domain studied, which supports the notion that risk is a domain-specific construct. The results associated with the health-related risk behaviors are consistent with existing literature about the positive impact of emotional abilities on the health domain. A more complete understanding of the emotional mechanisms that underlie risk behavior could help to establish action guidelines and improve programmes to prevent and reduce the negative effects of risk behavior on our society.

Personal Risk and Protective Factors Involved in Aggressive Behavior.

The study of aggression plays a prominent role in psychology and public health, because of the important adverse consequences of such behavior for victims, aggressors, and society in general. The General Aggression Model (GAM) provides a general conceptual framework for understanding the aggressive as a result of three stages: (a) inputs: personal and situational factors; (b) present internal states: affect, cognition, and arousal; and (c) outcomes: decision processes with a (non)aggressive result. The main objective of this research was to study the personal protective and risk factors most strongly associated with aggressive behavior acting at the first stage of the GAM model. A total of 282 young adult participants took part in this study. Participants were assessed for aggression levels and a set of the most relevant variables that have been associated with aggressive behavior in the previous literature. Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that levels of aggression were mainly associated (73.2% of the explained variance) with the following protective factors: the ability to manage emotions as a component of emotional intelligence (EI), and perspective-taking and personal distress as components of empathy, and with the following risk factors: negative and positive urgency as a component of impulsivity, fantasy as a component of empathy, negative affect, and expressive suppression of emotions. These findings provide a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying aggressive behavior and provide greater empirical value to the current theoretical models. In addition, this research can help to inform the design of more successful programs for the prevention, control, and treatment of aggressive behavior. Limitations and future lines of research are discussed.

Emotional Intelligence and Aggressive Behaviors in Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Adolescent aggression is a global public health with long-lasting and costly emotional, social, and economic consequences, and it is of vital importance to identify those variables that can reduce these behaviors in this population. Therefore, there is a need to establish the protective factors of aggressive behavior in adolescence. While some research has demonstrated the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and various aggressive responses in adolescence, indicating that EI-or the ability to perceive, use, understand, and regulate emotions-could be considered a protective factor for the development of aggressive behavior in adolescence, the strength of this effect is not clear. The aim of the present study was to conduct a systematic review of the literature concerning the relationship between aggressive behavior and EI in adolescents and provide a reliable estimate of the relationship between both constructs through a meta-analysis. For this purpose, we searched for relevant articles in English and Spanish in Medline, PsycINFO, and Scopus, obtaining 17 selectable articles based on the search terms used in research in the adolescent population. These studies provide scientific evidence of the relationship between the level of EI assessed from the three theoretical models of EI (performance-based ability model, self-report ability model, and self-report mixed model) and various aggressive responses, showing that adolescents with higher levels of EI show less aggressive behavior. Implications for interventions and guidelines for future research are discussed.

The Role of Sensitivity to Reward and Punishment in Aggression.

The study of the risk and protective factors in aggression is of fundamental importance for our society. The aim of this research was to clarify the role of sensitivity to reward/punishment in aggression and provide a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying this relationship, particularly given that previous studies in the literature have yielded mixed results. To this end, two studies were conducted. In Study 1 (484 participants; Mage = 39.09; 48.6s women), we explored the relationship between sensitivity to reward and punishment and four components of aggression: physical, verbal, anger, and hostility. In Study 2 (229 participants; Mage = 21.52; 56.77% women), we investigated the moderating role of emotion regulation ability in this relationship. The findings of Studies 1 and 2 supported the existence of a positive relationship between sensitivity to reward and aggression, that is, a high reactivity to reward acted as a risk factor. With respect to sensitivity to punishment, mediation analysis revealed that this variable may act both as a protective factor as well as a risk factor for behavioral aggression. A higher reactivity to punishment had a direct negative effect on physical and verbal aggression, inhibiting aggressive behavior. However, a higher reactivity to punishment also implied a positive indirect effect on physical and verbal aggression through an increase in anger and hostility. Interestingly, Study 2 revealed that these indirect effects were moderated by emotion regulation ability. Our results could help to inform the design of aggression prevention and intervention programs for reducing the impact of this behavior on our society.

A longitudinal study of the influence of concerns about contagion on negative affect during the COVID-19 lockdown in adults: The moderating effect of gender and resilience.

The COVID-19 global pandemic has had psychological consequences worldwide. The aim of the present study was to analyze the effect of concerns about contagion on negative affect (NA) according to resilience, gender and age by using a longitudinal methodology that evaluated the participants 4 months before the COVID-19 outbreak and during the resulting lockdown situation imposed by the Spanish government. About 102 participants from a community sample were assessed. The results revealed higher levels of NA during the lockdown, as well as a positive relationship between age and the increase in NA. In addition, we found that a positive relationship between contagion concern and increase in NA was only observed in women with low resilience.

Relationship between emotional intelligence and empathy towards humans and animals.

Previous research has highlighted that Emotional Intelligence (EI) is related to an array of positive interpersonal behaviours, including greater human empathy. Nonetheless, although animals are an integral part of our lives, there is still a lack of clarity regarding the way in which EI relates to empathy towards animals. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between EI and empathy towards humans and animals. We used the Trait-Meta Mood Scale to assess EI, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index to assess empathy for humans, and the Animal Empathy Scale to assess empathy for animals. Our findings revealed a positive relationship between empathy for humans and animals. The results also supported the idea that EI is positively related to empathy for humans, while the relationship between EI and empathy for animals was dependent on whether or not the participants had experience with pets. In addition, multiple regression analysis showed that the variables that best predicted empathy for animals were having a pet (or not), age, gender and human empathic concern. Finally, the relationship between human empathic concern and empathy for animals was stronger in participants who had pets. These findings provide a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying empathic behaviour and suggest that empathy for humans and animals can be influenced by different factors. Limitations and future lines of research are discussed.

Is It Possible to Be Happy during the COVID-19 Lockdown? A Longitudinal Study of the Role of Emotional Regulation Strategies and Pleasant Activities in Happiness.

This study aimed to longitudinally analyze the role played by two emotional regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression), through the mediating effect of engagement in pleasant activities during lockdown, in changes in affective and cognitive happiness in comparison with pre-pandemic levels. Eighty-eight participants from a community sample were evaluated at two timepoints. At timepoint 1 (before the COVID-19 pandemic), participants were evaluated on emotional regulation and cognitive and affective happiness. At timepoint 2 (during the COVID-19 lockdown), participants were evaluated on cognitive and affective happiness and the frequency with which they engaged in pleasant activities. We found an optimal fit of the proposed model in which cognitive reappraisal was significantly related to engagement in more pleasant activities during the lockdown. In turn, these pleasant activities were related to more affective happiness during the lockdown (compared with pre-pandemic levels), and this affective happiness was associated with greater cognitive happiness. In conclusion, cognitive reappraisal was a protective factor for affective and cognitive happiness through the mediating role of engagement in pleasant activities during lockdown. Limitations and future lines of investigation are discussed.

Spanish Adaptation and Validation of the 34-Item Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (SRP).

The recent conceptualization of psychopathy as a dimensional construct has given rise to the need for validated instruments for use in nonclinical populations. The Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (SRP-III) is a questionnaire widely used to evaluate psychopathic traits in clinical and nonclinical samples in the English-speaking population. Using a community sample, the authors aimed to adapt and validate, to the Spanish language, the SRP-III based on the English short-form version by Mahmut, Menictas, Stevenson, and Homewood (2011). The SRP-III was administered to 1,938 participants. Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that the four-factor model satisfactorily fits the data. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability were adequate for the total score and its four facets. The SRP-III also showed good construct validity as measured through its relationship with personality, depression, empathy, machiavellianism, and narcissism. These results suggest that the Spanish version of the 34-item SRP-III is an adequate measurement of psychopathic traits.

The 'Reading the mind in the Eyes' test and emotional intelligence.

The 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' test (Eyes Test) has been widely used to measure theory of mind (ToM) or the ability to recognize the thoughts and feelings of others. Although previous studies have analysed its relationship with the ability to perceive emotions, the potential links with more complex emotional abilities remain unclear. The aim of the present research was to analyse the relationship between the Eyes Test and each of the emotional intelligence (EI) branches: perceiving, facilitating, understanding and managing emotions. In addition, we were interested in studying these relationships as a function of the Eyes Test difficulty. Eight hundred and seventy-four participants completed the Eyes Test and the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test. A stepwise multiple regression analysis for the total score on the Eyes Test revealed that the best fitting model included the understanding, perceiving and managing emotion branches, with the understanding branch being the one most strongly associated with performance on the Eyes Test. Interestingly, stepwise multiple regression analysis for the easiest items of the Eyes Test revealed the same predictors, but, in the case of the most difficult items only the understanding branch was a predictor. These outcomes were not moderated by the influence of gender. Our findings support the notion that the Eyes Test can be used as a ToM task and that it is associated with complex EI abilities. Limitations and future lines of investigation are discussed.

Relationship between the Dark Triad and depressive symptoms.

The Dark Triad (DT) is composed of three closely related personality traits: psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism. These traits have been linked to emotional deficits. The aim of the present study was to analyze the relationship between the DT traits, including sub-dimensions, and depressive symptoms in order to identify those factors most strongly associated with the development of depression in individuals scoring high on DT. For these purposes, a total of 791 adults (M = 35.76 years; 24.91% males) completed a questionnaire battery including DT traits and depression measures. A positive significant correlation was found between psychopathy and Machiavellianism traits (total score and all sub-dimensions) and depressive symptoms. For narcissism, the direction of the correlation was dependent on the sub-dimension assessed. A model explaining 26.2% of the depressive symptoms scores was composed of the callous affect and criminal tendencies sub-dimensions of psychopathy, cynical view of human nature, which is a sub-dimension of Machiavellianism, and entitlement and self-sufficiency, which are sub-dimensions of narcissism. In addition, some of the relationships found between DT sub-dimensions and depressive symptoms appeared to depend on gender. Our results could have implications for detection and intervention programs aimed at decreasing the negative emotional consequences suffered by individuals with high DT scores. Limitations and future lines of research are discussed.

Emotionally intelligent people reappraise rather than suppress their emotions.

It has long been thought that emotional intelligence (EI) involves skillful emotion regulation, but surprisingly little is known about the precise links between EI and emotion regulation. To address this gap in the literature, we examined the relation between EI-operationalised as an ability-and the use of two common emotion regulation strategies-cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. Seven hundred and twelve participants from a community sample in Spain were assessed on ability EI (using the MSCEIT) and emotion regulation (using the ERQ). Findings revealed that EI ability was positively associated with cognitive reappraisal and negatively associated with expressive suppression. These relationships were moderated by gender and age. The strength of the association between EI and cognitive reappraisal increased with age for men, while this strength decreased with age for women. Conversely, the strength of the association between EI and suppression decreased with age for men, but increased with age for women. These findings confirm the expectation that EI is associated with greater use of generally adaptive forms of emotion regulation (reappraisal), and lesser use of generally maladaptive forms of emotion regulation (suppression), although effect sizes were quite modest. Observed differences in the strength of associations between EI and emotion regulation may be the result of gender differences in the development of emotional skills along with cultural changes in emotional education and social norms.

A Comparison of the Ability Emotional Intelligence of Head Teachers With School Teachers in Other Positions.

Head teachers are exposed to a highly emotional and stressful job, and they need a sufficient combination of professional competencies in order to deal with daily challenges in schools. Recent studies have shown the importance of developing emotional competencies such as emotional intelligence (EI) in teachers in order to improve their professional development and to ensure the adequate functioning of the school. However, rather less is known about the ability EI of head teachers. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the ability EI of public school head teachers and compare this ability with those working in other positions within the school. For these purposes, 393 participants (35 head teachers, 39 middle leaders, 236 tutors, and 86 teachers) aged between 24 and 62 years (M = 40.26; SD = 9.27) completed the mayer-salovey-caruso emotional intelligence test (MSCEIT). The results revealed a significantly higher total EI for head teachers than teachers, along with higher scores in the understanding branch of the MSCEIT for the head teachers compared with workers in other positions. In addition, on this EI branch, tutors also achieved higher scores than the teachers. We also evaluated the alternative hypothesis that years of teaching experience could explain the relationship between work position and the EI scores, and found no evidence in support of this possibility. Limitations and future lines of research are discussed.